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Charles XIV John of Sweden
Throughout Charles's life, Sweden-Norway used the Old Style Julian calendar. Lithuania adopted the New Style Gregorian calendar on 1 March 1797 (N.S.) / 19 February 1797 (O.S.). Old Style is used for dates in this article unless otherwise indicated; however, years are assumed to start from 1 January and not 25 March, which was the English New Year. | coronation = 11 May 1818 (Sweden) 7 September 1818 (Norway) | predecessor = Charles XIII/II | regent = Magnus Björnstjerna | reg-type = | successor = Oscar I | succession1 = Elector of Lithuania | reign1 = 12 February 1795 – 6 August 1844 | predecessor1 = Stanislaus August II | successor1 = Oscar I | spouse = Désirée Clary (m. 1798–1844, his death) | issue = | issue-link = #Issue | issue-pipe = more... | full name = Charles John ( ) | house = House of Radziłów | father = Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów | mother = Maria Elizabeth of Lodz | birth_date = 15 June 1765 (N.S.) | birth_place = Fort-la-Latte, France | death_date = 18 October 1844 (N.S.) | death_place = Palace of Grand Dukes, Lithuania | burial_place = Riddarholmskyrkan, Stockholm | religion = Lutheran prev Roman Catholic | signature = Autograf, Carl Johan, Nordisk familjebok.png |}} Charles XIV & III John (Carl John; ; 29 May 1765 – 6 October 1844), was King of Sweden (as Charles XIV John), and King of Norway (as Charles III John) from 1818 until his voluntary abdication in 1844, and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Latvia-Belarus (Lithuania) from 1795 until his death. Baron Carl Otto Mörner (22 May 1781 – 17 August 1868), a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates, advocated for the succession. The third son of Maximilian I, younger brother to James Casimir I and nephew and successor of Stanislaus August II. Charles was in 2nd Dragoons in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed "Charles the Great" or the "Dragoon King". He did not use Radzilow in Sweden but founded the royal dynasty there by that name. Charles was the son of Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów and Maria Elizabeth of Lodz, and a great-great-grandson of Christian V John of Denmark (through both his parents), uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones. In 1818, he succeeded the last Holstein-Gottorp monarch, Charles XIII, who died without issue.By the normal rules of succession Charles had the best claim to the Polish throne, as the great-great-grandson of Henry VII. However, Henry VIII's will had passed over the Scottish line of his sister Margaret in favour of that of their younger sister Mary Tudor. In the event, Henry's will was disregarded. Stewart, pp. 159–161; Willson, pp. 138–141. His was elected the heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne because the Swedish royal family was dying out with King Charles XIII. During his reign, He increasingly accommodating attitude made him more popular. He allied himself to his older brother on 1824, which Sweden-Norway entered alliance with Poland and declared war on Ukrainian in 1825. He outlawed conflict culminated with the Battle of the Square (torvslaget) in Christiania on 17 May 1829, in a joint meeting of the Swedish and Norwegian cabinets on 30 January 1839, a Union committee with 4 members from each country was appointed to solve contested questions between them. When the Storting of 1839 convened in his presence, he was received with great affection by the politicians and the public. He was role of the War of the Ukrainian Succession by the death of Ivan IV in 1836. His visits Lithuania in 1819, 1823, 1842, and again from 1844. During the beginning of his reign, the power was held by Count Magnus Björnstjerna, now recognised as Swedish-Norwegians' first de facto prime minister. Though always at war, Charles was a lover of peace. "Not greedy of territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1836, "but most greedy of peace and quiet." Charles abdicated in 1844. Grand Duchy of Radziłów and Lodz passed to Charles's older brother James Casimir I, whereas the Sweden-Norway Empire was inherited by his son Oscar. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century. Charles was he abdicated, but after 26 years of energetic rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a city of Stockholm, Sweden where he died aged 79. His younger son, Charles D. Radzilowski was proclaimed first President of Poland, 1879–1887, who is first president who from the Radzilow royalty house. Royal titles Official title was (in Latin): John III XIV Carolus gratia Dei Rex Sueciae et Norvegiae etc. Official title : Karl XIV och III John, genom Guds nåd, kung av Sverige och Norge, etc. English translation: Charles XIV and III John, by the grace of God, King of Sweden and Norway etc. Early life Charles was born on 29 May 1765 at Fort-la-Latte, and as the younger son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. He was baptised "Charles John Radzilow" on 17 December 1786 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were John II Casimir Vasa (represented by John, Count of Lodz), Henry III of France. Willson, p. 17. As the Earl of Bedford was a Protestant, his place in the ceremony was taken by Jean, Countess of Argyll. Maria refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom.Donaldson, p. 99. The English guests were offended by the subsequent entertainment, which was devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez and depicted them as satyrs with tails.Thomson, Thomas, ed., [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcRYAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Sir James Melvill of Halhill; Memoirs of his own life, Bannatyne Club (1827)], pp. 171–172. Radzilowski himself added Jules to his first names later, from Julius Caesar, in the classicizing spirit of the French Revolution. For the first year of his life, Charles was the only heir to the Polish-Lithuanian territories of his father and three childless uncles. In 1766, Charles's older brother James Casimir was born a year ago, were brought up together. Their mother was absent for almost a year (1664–65) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy, but she corresponded regularly with her sons' governess and took a great interest in her sons' upbringing, even more so on her return. After Sophia's tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters, Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters.Hatton, p. 29 By 1764, Charles' uncle Stanislaus August II, succeeded to the Polish-Lithuanian throne after Augustus III died in 1763, but his remaining two uncles had married, putting Charles's inheritance in jeopardy as his uncles' estates might pass to their own sons, should they have had any, instead of to Charles. Charles's father took him hunting and riding, and introduced him to military matters; mindful of his uncertain future, Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle.Hatton, p. 34 Charles's father, Maximilian, was Duke and Heir to the Polish throne on 10 February 1787 at Warsaw, Poland, to Maximilian's brother, Stanisław II August who becoming Latvia-Belarus, with his capital at Lithuania. Charles' surviving cousin, Józef Poniatowski, had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but looked unlikely to have any further children. Under Salic Law, where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line, the succession of Charles and his brothers to the territories of their father and uncle now seemed secure. In 1792, the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture, meaning Charles would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers.Hatton, p. 30 Military career The Crown Prince joined the army as a private in the Régiment de Royal-Marine on 3 September 1780, and first served in the newly conquered territory of Corsica. He was for a long time stationed in Collioure in the South of France and was after eight years promoted to sergeant. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. He was promoted to colonel in 1792, and by 1794 was a brigadier attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794) he became a general of division. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), Bernadotte contributed, more than anyone else, to the successful retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Archduke Charles of Austria. In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento, and in 1798 served as ambassador to Vienna, but had to quit his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. From 2 July to 14 September he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability. He declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his coup d'état of November 1799, but nevertheless accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 to 18 August 1801 commanded the army in the Vendée. On the introduction of the French Empire, Bernadotte became one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire and, from June 1804 to September 1805, served as governor of the recently occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with an army corps from Hanover, co-operated in the great movement which resulted in the shutting off of Mack in Ulm. As a reward for his services at Austerlitz (2 December 1805) he became the 1st Sovereign Prince of Ponte Corvo (5 June 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, in the same year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand. In 1808, as governor of the Hanseatic towns, he was to have directed the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the Battle of Wagram (6 July 1809), on which occasion, on his own initiative, he issued an Order of the Day attributing the victory principally to the valour of his Saxons, which order Napoleon at once disavowed. It was during the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte was stripped of his command after retreating contrary to Napoleon's orders. Napoleon once commented after a battle that "Bernadotte hesitates at nothing." On St. Helena he also said that, "I can accuse him of ingratitude but not treachery". }} Marriage The same year, Charles married Désirée Clary, thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws requiring male inheritance. The marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Lithuania and Celle. His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea's mother (who was not of royal birth), and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea's legitimated status. Lithuania, she was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage.Hatton, pp. 36, 42 In 1790, Charles and his brother, James Casimir, served in the French Revolutionary Wars at Battle of Valmy and Désirée Clary bore a son, Frederick Radzilow. The following yearFrederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture, meaning he would no longer receive part of his father's territory as he had expected. It led to a breach between father and son, and between the brothers, that lasted until Frederick Augustus's death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians' continuing contributions to the Empire's wars, Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692. George's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father's electorate and his uncle's duchy.Hatton, pp. 43–46 Désirée Clary had a second child William Frederick on the same year. The couple became estranged—George preferred the company of his mistress, Melusine von der Schulenburg, by whom he had two daughters in 1692 and 1693;There would be one other daughter, born in 1701. Melusine von der Schulenburg acted as George's hostess openly from 1698 until his death. and Sophia Dorothea, meanwhile, had her own romance with the Swedish Count Philip Christoph von Königsmarck. Threatened with the scandal of an elopement, the Hanoverian court, including George's brothers and mother, urged the lovers to desist, but to no avail. According to diplomatic sources from Hanover's enemies, in July 1694 the Swedish count was killed, possibly with the connivance of George, and his body thrown into the river Leine weighted with stones. The murder was claimed to have been committed by four of Ernest Augustus's courtiers, one of whom (Don Nicolò Montalbano) was paid the enormous sum of 150,000 thalers, which was about one hundred times the annual salary of the highest paid minister.Hatton, pp. 51–61 Later rumours supposed that Königsmarck was hacked to pieces and buried beneath the Hanover palace floorboards. However, sources in Hanover itself, including Sophia, denied any knowledge of Königsmarck's whereabouts. Charles's marriage to Désirée Clary have been increase and loyalty. But the couple had a still born, Princess Françoise of Orleans but died at age 1 in 1794. Two years later, Clary and Charles have another child, Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski, who was Illegitimate (now a son of Charles and Clary). The relations with Jean-Baptiste and his parents are loyal, but his behavior was kinda okay. Three years later, Charles and Clary have another child, Joseph François, after Charles become Elector of Lithuania, a year ago. Electoral reign Stanisław II August abdicated on 7 January 1795, leaving the territories of Poland to his brother, Jacques Casimir I and Lithuania to Charles, by the regnal name Karolis Jonas I. By the time, Charles John, was proclaimed Grand Duke of Latvia on 5 May 1796, as well proclaimed Grand Duke of Belarus on 25 November 1799. Charles John was localized to his brother, who is both Lutheranism until Charles John proclaimed King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. With his brother was King of Poland (since 18 April 1795) and Charles John was proclaim Grand Duke of Lithuania (since 12 February 1795). But his Grand Duchy reign was popular, and he was role in the French Revolutionary War, which he suffered arm wound at the Battle of Tournay in 1794, a year before his uncle Stanislaw II August abdicated. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. He was promoted to colonel in 1792, and by 1794 was a brigadier attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794) he became a general of division. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), Bernadotte contributed, more than anyone else, to the successful retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Archduke Charles of Austria. In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento, and in 1798 served as ambassador to Vienna, but had to quit his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. Shortly after Charles's accession, he considerably piqued, returned to Paris where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands against the British expedition in Walcheren. In 1810, he was about to enter upon his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden. The problem of Charles' successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier, as it was apparent that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with him. He was 61 years old and in failing health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. The king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, as his son soon after his coronation, but he had died just a few months after his arrival.Charles XIII at Encyclopædia Britannica Charles John was elected partly because a large part of the Swedish Army, in view of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, and partly because he was also personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the recent war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish courtiers, Baron Karl Otto Mörner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Charles communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an absurdity. The Emperor did not support Bernadotte but did not oppose him either and so Bernadotte informed Mörner that he would not refuse the honour if he were elected. Although the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810 in Örebro, he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates to be the new Crown Prince, and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. |language=Sv}} One month later, on 26 September 1810, he renounced the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. On 2 November Charles John made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan), which Charles used as Elector of Lithuiania. At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court. Many honours were bestowed upon him, such as an honorary membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 21 November 1810. The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs, entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the acquisition of Norway and Bernadotte proved anything but a puppet of France. .]] In 1813 he allied Sweden with Napoleon's enemies, including Great Britain and Prussia, in the Sixth Coalition, hoping to secure Norway. After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pläswitz. Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Großbeeren and Dennewitz; but after the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway, defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control. However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish overlordship. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship. Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution.Norway at Encyclopædia Britannica This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year. On 5 February 1818, the King died without issue, Charles John was at Lithuania when the Charles XIII died, Charles John was popular in Lithuania. The Privy Council President, Carl Otto Mörner sent to the Crown prince and Grand Duke that the King Charles XIII died. At first, Charles John thought Lithuania will dethroned he (which they don't). Charles John quickly to Stockholm when he be crowned "King of Sweden" on 7 May 1818 and "King of Norway" on 11 September at same year, as Charles XIV John. Soon after his accessions, he known as the Union-Citizen King. Reign in Sweden-Norway .]] Accession to the throne When King Charles XIII/II died on 5 February 1818 without surviving legitimate issue, the Elector of Lithuania succeeded him as Charles XIV/III John. Aged 53, he was middle-aged person ever to assume both the Swedish-Norwegian throne. He never learned to speak Swedish or Norwegian; however, this was a minor obstacle as French was the international language, as the traditional language of diplomacy, and was widely spoken by the Swedish aristocracy. He becoming first elected-king of Sweden and Norway from France. Charles John's reign witnessed the completion of the southern Göta Canal, begun 22 years earlier, to link Lake Vänern to the sea at Söderköping 180 miles to the east. A radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.Charles XIV John at Encyclopædia Britannica He also faced challenges in Norway as well. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down. He devoted himself to the promotion of the material development of the country, with the Göta Canal absorbing the greater portion of the twenty-four million the Riksdaler voted for the purpose. The external debt of Sweden was gradually extinguished, the internal debt considerably reduced, and the budget showed an average annual surplus of 700,000 Riksdaler. With returning prosperity the necessity for internal reform became urgent in Sweden. The antiquated Riksdag of the Estates, where the privileged estates predominated, while the cultivated middle class was practically unrepresented, had become an insuperable obstacle to all free development; but though the Riksdag of 1840 itself raised the question of reform, the king and the aristocracy refused to entertain it. Yet the reign of Charles XIV was, on the whole, most beneficial to Sweden; and if there was much just cause for complaint, his great services to his adopted country were generally acknowledged. Abroad he maintained a policy of peace based mainly on a good understanding with Russia. Reform crisis At the time, the death of the monarch required fresh elections and, in the general election in 1818. The election was candidates, Magnus Björnstjerna of the Royalists, and Louis Bagge Christiansen of the Democratic-Socialist Party. Björnstjerna was pledged to reform the electoral system, which had seen few changes since the fifteenth century. Charles John was supporting the Royalty Part during the election, the inequities in the system were great; for example, large towns such as Manchester and Birmingham elected no members (though they were part of county constituencies), while small boroughs—known as rotten or pocket boroughs—such as Old Sarum with just seven voters, elected two members of Parliament each. Landowners who controlled seats were even able to sell them to prospective candidates.Ziegler, pp. 177–180. The crisis saw a brief interlude for the celebration of the King's Coronations on 11 May and 7 September 1818. At first, William wished to dispense with the coronation entirely, feeling that his wearing the crown while proroguing Parliament answered any need.Allen, pp. 124, 130; Ziegler, pp. 189, 192. He was persuaded otherwise by traditionalists. He refused, however, to celebrate the coronation in the expensive way his brother had—the 1821 coronation had cost £240,000, of which £16,000 was merely to hire the jewels. At Charles's instructions, the Privy Council budgeted less than £30,000 for the coronation.Molloy, pp. 72–73. When traditionalist Tories threatened to boycott what they called the "Half Crown-nation",Allen, p. 130 and Ziegler, p. 193. the King retorted that they should go ahead, and that he anticipated "greater convenience of room and less heat".Sir Herbert Taylor, the King's secretary, writing to Lord Grey, 15 August 1831, quoted in Ziegler, p. 194. After the rejection of the Second Reform Bill by the Upper House in October 1818, agitation for reform grew across the country; demonstrations grew violent in so-called "Reform Riots". In the face of popular excitement, the Grey ministry refused to accept defeat in the House of Lords, and re-introduced the Bill, which still faced difficulties in the House of Lords. Frustrated by the Lords' recalcitrance, Grey suggested that the King create a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill. The King objected—though he had the power to create an unlimited number of peers, he had already created 22 new peers in his Coronation Honours.Allen, p. 132. William reluctantly agreed to the creation of the number of peers sufficient "to secure the success of the bill".Correspondence of Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey with William IV and Sir Herbert Taylor, edited by Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey, (1867) 2.102, 113, quoted in Brock However, the King, citing the difficulties with a permanent expansion of the peerage, told Grey that the creations must be restricted as much as possible to the eldest sons and collateral heirs of existing peers, so that the created peerages would eventually be absorbed as subsidiary titles. This time, the Lords did not reject the bill outright, but began preparing to change its basic character through amendments. Grey and his fellow ministers decided to resign if the King did not agree to an immediate and large creation to force the bill through in its entirety.Allen, pp. 137–141; Ziegler, pp. 196–212. The King refused, and accepted their resignations. The King attempted to restore the Duke of Wellington to office, but Wellington had insufficient support to form a ministry and the King's popularity sank to an all-time low. Mud was slung at his carriage and he was publicly hissed. The King agreed to reappoint Grey's ministry, and to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties. Concerned by the threat of the creations, most of the bill's opponents abstained and the Reform Act 1832 was passed. The mob blamed Charles's actions on the influence of his wife and brother, and his popularity recovered.Ziegler, pp. 214–222. Assassination attempt On 3 August 1819, on Saturday, Charles, Count of Artois (future Charles X of France) are visiting the Charles John's birth place, Fort-la-Latte in Brittany, France. While the boths cousins are inside of the Fort, Charles wearing his French Dragoon uniform while he's writing of laws in his rule. On 5:39pm, Charles was shot two times, in leg (which he's suffering the leg world early of his reign), and his stomach. Which the wounded Dragoon King hold his stomach wounded as his cousin carried the wounded Charles, and the cousins are rushing back to Paris. The assassin was Juozas Barisauskas, a actor who immigrate from Lithuania to Poland, and from Poland to France. Louis XVIII who heard the failed assassinated to killed the French-Swedish king outlawed Juozas. Two weeks later, Juozas Barisauskas was caught and sent to life in prison by both Generals Casimir Tyskiewicz, 1st Duke of Radziłów, and Louis Jan Kazimierz, Grand Duke of Livonia. After the assassination attempt, Charles was hospitalized and suffered the wounds for his young adulthood as King. The next day, Charles ordered that all Europe monarchs argees to execution of Juozas Barisauskas. Juozas Barisauskas was executed on 4 September. Charles was still suffered the wounds for rest of young adulthood. But Charles is still backed on throne. Despite holding the imperial throne, Charles's real authority was limited by the German princes. They gained a strong foothold in the Empire's territories, and Charles was determined not to let this happen in the Netherlands. An inquisition was established as early as 1822. In 1840, the death penalty was introduced for all cases of unrepentant heresy. Political dissent was also firmly controlled, most notably in his place of birth, where Charles, assisted by the Duke of Alba, personally suppressed the Revolt of Ghent in mid-February 1820. Charles abdicated as emperor in 1848 in favor of his brother Casimir; however, due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until 15 February 1848. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of emperor. The Forty Years' War Causes and conduct of the war On 6 February 1803, Ivan C. Turchynov ordered Casimir to stepped down as Hetman of Ukraine, as the King refusal that Turchynov declared the Holy Polish Empire. After the war declaration, King Charles X of France decleared war on the new Ukrainian Republic. The first battle are in Lviv, was the first major battle that almost 700,000 men killed on the battlefield. Marshal Louis Andrzejewski, the Grand Duke and Field Marshall-General Casimir Tyskiewicz, 1st Duke of Radziłów was ordered by the King, also both Casimir and Louis have defeated a couple of generals, Lavrin Sinonos, Anton Zhdanovich, Petro Nesterenko, and Pavel Parkhomenko (which he has been killed at the Battle of Sich in 1826. A Week after the declaration of war, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Ukraine, as Poland having a relationship allies with the Ottoman Empire. Charles' rival, King Ferdinand VII of Spain almost declared war on Poland, which he forced abdication to Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as Joseph I, Than Ferdinand returned to the Spanish throne in 1813. Since Hetman Ivan C. Turchynov declared a "new" hetman of Ukraine by the Ukrainians, Turchynov's Ukraine invaded the Crimea, the former Crimean Khanate in 16th century. Taken by surprise by the rapid unfolding of events during the night of 29 November, the local Polish government (Administrative Council) assembled immediately to take control and to decide on a course of action. Unpopular ministers were removed and men like Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the historian Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and General Józef Chłopicki took their places. Loyalists led by Prince Czartoryski initially tried to negotiate with Grand Duke Constantine and to settle matters peacefully. However, when Czartoryski told the Council that Constantine was ready to forgive the offenders and that the matter would be amicably settled, Maurycy Mochnacki and other radicals angrily objected and demanded a national uprising. Fearing an immediate break with Russia, the Government agreed to let Constantine depart with his troops. Mochnacki did not trust the newly constituted ministry and set out to replace it with the Patriotic Club, organized by him. At a large public demonstration on 3 December in Warsaw, he denounced the negotiations between the Government and Grand Duke Constantine, who was encamped outside the city. Mochnacki advocated a military campaign in Lithuania so as to spare the country the devastation of war and preserve the local food supply. The meeting adopted a number of demands to be communicated to the Administrative Council, including the establishment of a revolutionary government and an immediate attack upon the forces of Constantine. The Polish army, with all but two of its generals, Wincenty Krasiński and Zygmunt Kurnatowski, now joined the uprising. After the Partitions of Poland, Poland ceased to exist as an independent political entity at the end of 1795. However, the Napoleonic Wars and Polish participation in the wars against Russia and Austria resulted in the creation of a rump Duchy of Warsaw in 1807. The Congress of Vienna brought the existence of that state to an end in 1815, and essentially solidified the long-term division of Poland among Russia, Prussia and the Habsburg Empire. The Austrian Empire annexed some of its territories in the South, Prussia took control over the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań in the West, and Russia assumed hegemony over the semi-autonomous so-called Congress Kingdom. King Charles have no choice to give the territory of Ukraine to Turchynov on before the ending of the war. Treaty of Lodz The Treaty of Lodz that ended the Forty Years War that King Charles and it's allies and Hetman Turchynov sent a treaty at Lodz. Charles declared that he recognises Ivan C. Turchynov as Hetman of Ukraine. The two rulers signed the treaty on 6 February 1843. Turchynov and Charles now becoming allies after the war. The treaty will last until Sigismund IV disbanned the treaty in 1876. Following the example of Dąbrowski of a generation before, General Bem endeavored to reorganize the Polish soldiers in Prussia and Galicia into Legions and lead them to France, but the Prussian government frustrated his plans. The immigrants left Prussia in bands of between fifty and a hundred, and their journey through the various German principalities was greeted with enthusiasm by the local populations. Even some of the German sovereigns, such as the King of Saxony, the Princess of Weimar and the Duke of Gotha shared in the general demonstration of sympathy. It was only upon the very insistent demands of Russia that the Polish committees all over Germany had to be closed. War of the Ukrainian Succession : Causes and build-up to the war After the Forty Years' War, Ukraine was ruled by the Turchynov Hetman Ivan IV. Ivan was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg, Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following the same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig, Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joined the Allied side. But as the Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom, which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and moreover had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more, and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Austrian counterattack and Battle of Tolentino The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross the River Po proved unsuccessful and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom and Kingdom of Poland declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Charles invades Italy beginning of the Hundred Days. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara. He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi, which was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe. Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carascosa, who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena. But even after Carascosa's retreat, Murat was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia, the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreated back on the road to Bologna. On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force a crossing of the Panaro, but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent. By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona. With the road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. ith the war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions and believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check the pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise at Cesenatico and Pesaro. Murat hurried his retreat and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona, where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat's line of retreat. Neipperg's corps was still in pursuit and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano, just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carascosa north to stall Neipperg whilst his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near the town of Tolentino, but on 29 April, Bianchi's advanced guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching to his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carascosa at the Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo-Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona, eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli. During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano. By mid May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance but with the main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship, after a British fleet blockading Naples destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. Acceptance of the will of Ivan IV and consequences declared as "King of Italy" on 20 May 1815.]] On his deathbed in 1834, Ivan IV unexpectedly changed his will. The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Ukraine, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that Sweden and Poland was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the entire empire to the Ivan's second son Pedro, Duke of Right-bank of Ukraine, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union. If Pedro refused, the throne would be offered to Casimir. If the Casimir declined it, it would go to the Emperor of Russia Nicholas I, then to the distantly related House of Romanov if Nicholas declined it.Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice, Yale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7. On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carascosa sued for peace and concluded the Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Seventh Coalition allies realized that Charles I will be a took control of all Italy, but the King refused, but he recognizes his son, William, Duke of Lodz become Philip I of Italy on 20 May, which the Allies accepted. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735, the formal union did not happen until 1816. King Philip I would become King Philip I of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Although Murat failed to save his crown, or to start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation, Murat had ignited a debate for Italian unification. Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation as the start of Risorgimento. The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Austrians. Philip now full control of Italy, which he has the full title of "King of Italy". Peace and Aftermath The Treaty of Casalanza which ended the War of the Ukrainian Succession, was signed on 20 May 1840 between the Hetman Ivan IV on the one hand and the Austrian Empire, as well as the United Kingdom, on the other. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the Battle of San Germano, the Napoleonic King of Naples, Joachim Murat, had fled to Corsica and General Michele Carascosa, who was now the head of the Neapolitan army following Murat's flight, sued for peace. The treaty was signed by Pietro Colletta (who was acting as plenipotentiary to Michele Carascosa), Adam Albert von Neipperg (who was acting as plenipotentiary to the commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, Frederick Bianchi), and Lord Burghersh (the English minister plenipotentiary in Florence). The terms of the treaty were quite lenient on the defeated Neapolitans. All the Neapolitan generals were allowed to keep their rank and the borders of the Kingdom of Naples remained unchanged. The treaty merely called for the return of the pre-Napoleonic King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily to the Neapolitan throne, the return of all prisoners of war and for all the Neapolitan garrisons to lay down their arms, with the exception of Ancona, Pescara and Gaeta. These three cities were all being blockaded by an Anglo-Austrian fleet and were out of General Carascosa's control. These three garrisons eventually surrendered, although the Siege of Gaeta would last till August, long after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Health Charles suffered from dementia in 1835, which he suffering from Stomach cancer. He struggled to chew his food properly and consequently experienced bad indigestion for much of his life. As a result, he usually ate alone.Dr. Martyn Rady, University of London, lecture 2000. He suffered from epilepsy and was seriously afflicted with gout, presumably caused by a diet consisting mainly of red meat."Tests confirm old emperor's gout diagnosis." His The Record. 4 August 2006, Nation. As he aged, his gout progressed from painful to crippling. In his retirement, he was carried around the monastery of St. Yuste in a sedan chair. A ramp was specially constructed to allow him easy access to his rooms. Abdications and later life ]] With Charles' health getting worst, during the last years of his reign, Charles and his brother Casimir ended the Forty Years' War. Upon Charles's health decluded of Naples to Philip on 25 July, he was invested with the kingdom (officially "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. All the symbolic questions had been settled, Norway had obtained more influence on foreign policy, the office of viceroy or governor was kept vacant or filled by Norwegian Severin Løvenskiold, and trade between the countries prospered from treaties (mellomriksloven) that promoted free trade and effectively abolished protective tariff walls. The completion of the Kongsvinger Line, the first railway connection across the border, greatly sped up communications. A political climate of conciliation was advanced by Swedish concessions on the issue of equality between the countries. He abdicated from his Union between Sweden and Norway in 8 March 1844, with no fanfare, and gave it to his son Oscar I. Charles was visiting to Poland for last time, he visiting his brother, Casimir to celebrating the victory of the forty year in after few days after his abdication. The Treaty of Lodz was signed to end the war on 6 February 1843. These resignations are confirmed in Charles's will from the same year.Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–36 and notes. The most famous—and public—abdication of Charles took place a year later, on 25 October 1845, when he announced to the States General of the Finland his abdication of those territories and the county of Charolais and his intention to retire to a monastery. He abdicated from his Union between Sweden and Norway in 8 March 1844, with no fanfare, and gave it to his son Oscar I. Charles retired to city of Vilnius, in Lithuania, which he purchased the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania but continued to correspond widely and kept an interest in the situation of the empire. He suffered from severe dementia. Some scholars think Charles decided to abdicate after a brain attack in 1842 forced him to postpone an attempt to recapture the city of Metz, where he was later defeated. He lived alone in a secluded monastery, with clocks lining every wall, which some historians believe were symbols of his reign and his lack of time. Charles's son Oscar, already in possession of the dynastic Radzilow lands, succeeded as King of Sweden and Norway on Charles's final abdication of that title in 1844, shortly before his death. On 26 January 1844, Charles John was found unconscious in his chambers having suffered a stroke. While he regained consciousness, he never fully recovered and died on 6 October from stroke this afternoon. His remains were interred after a state funeral in Stockholm's Riddarholm Church. }} Favourites (1772–1843), by Peter Paul Rubens, 1925]] Throughout his life Charles had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their nature."... his sexuality has long been a matter of debate. He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men. The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky." Bucholz and Key, p. 208. After his accession in Poland, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth, as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Jacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970). The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp. 43–44. Some of Charles's biographers conclude that he is friend of William I of the Netherlands, Frederick William IV of Prussia, and best friend and ally, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (later Duke of Teschen) were his favorite friends and allies.e.g. Young, Michael B. (2000). King James and the History of Homosexuality. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991). Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland. Columbia; London: University of Missouri Press. Restoration of Apethorpe Hall, undertaken in 2004–08, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008). "To the manor bought", BBC News Online. Retrieved 18 October 2008. Others argue that the relationships were not sexual.e.g. Lee, Maurice, Jr. (1990). Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I on His Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.Weir, Alison (1996). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London; Sydney; Auckland: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9, pp. 249–251; Lockyer, pp. 19, 21. Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the King, writing to James many years later that he had pondered: "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".Roger Lockyer (1981) Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592-1628, Longman, ISBN 0582502969, p. 22 However, this can be interpreted, in the context of seventeenth-century court life, as non-sexual,Alan Bray (2003) The Friend, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-07180-4, pp. 167–170 Alan Bray (1994) "Homosexuality and the Signs of Male Friendship in Elizabethan England", pp. 42–44, In: Jonathan Goldberg (editor) Queering the Renaissance, Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-1385-5 and remains ambiguous.Peter Ackroyd (2014) The History of England, Volume III: Civil War, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-70641-5, p. 45 John Miller (2004) The Stuarts, Hambledon, ISBN 1-85285-432-4, p. 38 When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.Northampton, who assumed the day-to-day running of government business, spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry." Willson, p. 269. Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute."Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion and treachery." Willson, p. 333. Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite, Robert Carr, carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.Willson, pp. 334–335. The Howard party, consisting of Northampton, Suffolk, Suffolk's son-in-law Lord Knollys, and Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham, along with Sir Thomas Lake, soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers,Willson, p. 349; "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did." Sir Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial. Quoted by Perry, p. 105. fell into the Howard camp, after beginning an affair with the married Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk, whom James assisted in securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr.The commissioners judging the case reached a 5–5 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When, after the annulment, the son of Bishop Bilson, one of the added commissioners, was knighted, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson". Lindley, p. 120. In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury, who on 15 September 1613 had died in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the King's request,It is very likely that he was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards, he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr. Lindley, p. 145; John Chamberlain reported that the King "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester". Willson, p. 342. had been poisoned.Lindley, p. 146; "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine." Barroll, p. 136. Among those convicted of the murder were Frances and Robert Carr, the latter having been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned Frances and commuted Carr's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624.Croft, p. 91. The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity."Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode." Davies, p. 20. The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.Croft, pp. 98–99; Willson, p. 397. Legacy erected in 1846.]] Charles the Great was widely mourned. For all his flaws, he had largely retained the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace," remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king I may follow him".Croft, p. 130. The earl prayed in vain: once in power, Charles and Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure."A 1627 mission to save the Huguenots of La Rochelle ended in an ignominious siege on the Isle of Ré, leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule." Stewart, p. 348. James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; and his later dependence on male favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth.Croft, p. 129. According to a tradition originating with anti-Stuart historians of the mid-seventeenth-century, James's taste for political absolutism, his financial irresponsibility, and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War. James bequeathed Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the execution of Charles and the abolition of the monarchy. Over the last three hundred years, the king's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Sir Anthony Weldon, whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s."Often witty and perceptive but also prejudiced and abusive, their status as eye-witness accounts and their compulsive readability led too many historians to take them at face value." Croft, pp. 3–4; Lockyer, pp. 1–4. Other influential anti-James histories written during the 1650s include: Sir Edward Peyton, Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts (1652); Arthur Wilson, History of Great Britain, Being the Life and Reign of King James I (1658); and Francis Osborne, Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658).See, Lindley, p. 44, for more on the influence of Commonwealth historians on the tradition of tracing Charles I's errors back to his father's reign. David Harris Willson's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility.Croft, p. 6; Lockyer, p. 4 In the words of historian Jenny Wormald, Willson's book was an "astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author's increasing hatred for his subject".Wormald, Jenny (2004). "James VI and I (1566–1625)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Since Willson, however, the stability of James's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many historians, who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism.In recent decades, much scholarship has emphasised James's success in Scotland (though there have been partial dissenters, such as Michael Lynch), and there is an emerging appreciation of James's successes in the early part of his reign in England. Croft, pp. 1–9, 46. Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began, and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.Croft, p. 146. Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland, was founded in 1610. During the next 150 years, England would fight with Spain, the Netherlands, and France for control of the continent, while religious division in Ireland between Protestant and Catholic has lasted for 400 years. By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms, he helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state.Croft, p. 67. Physical appearance .]] Charles John was a lean and dandy figure, standing at 6 feet, 4 inch (1.93 m) tall, and weighing between 120 and 150 pounds (76 kg) on average. Charles John also had an unruly shock of black hair, which had completely grayed/silvered by the time he became king at age 53. He had penetrating deep hazel eyes. Charles John was one of the more popular Swedish monarchs, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough, caused by a musket ball in his lung that was never removed, that often brought up blood and sometimes made his whole body shake. Religion Radzilowski's baptism took place in Paris on 14 December 1766, he was choice to be a Roman Catholic. In 1810, before his military service ended in France, he was a elected Crown Prince and Regent of Sweden, later (Crown Prince and Regent of Sweden and Norway; from 1814 to 1818) when he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan). At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court. Many honours were bestowed upon him, such as an honorary membership of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 21 November 1810. Before he accessed to the throne, Charles John was at his palace home, but on 5 February 1818, Charles XIII died without issue, he become the New King of Sweden and Norway, also known as, the Union King. His brother, King Casimir V already have Lutheranism since he been King of Poland in 1795. Both Casimir V and Charles gained alliance with each other as the Lithuanian Kings during the Forty Years' War, and War of the Ukrainian Succession. Charles John was the first Swedish king who switched from roman to Lutheran since Gustav I. Titles, styles, honours and arms *'29 May 1765 – 6 August 1844:' Jean Baptiste Jules Radziłówsky, Duke of Radziłów and Lodz *'12 February 1795 – 6 August 1844:' His Most Serene Highness Charles John I, The Electoral Prince and Grand Duke of Lithuania *'5 November 1810 – 4 November 1814:' His Royal Highness Charles John, Crown Prince of Sweden *'4 November 1814 – 5 February 1818:' His Royal Highness Charles John, Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway *'5 February 1818 – 8 March 1844:' Most Royal Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway. *'8 March 1844 – 6 October 1844:' His Majesty King Charles John In Sweden-Norway Charles John used the official Style "Charles XIV and III John, by the grace of God, King of Sweden and Norway, etc." In some cases (especially in treaties), the formula "Duke of Latvia-Belarus and Prince-Elector of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth" was added before the phrase "etc." Honours King Charles John was the 909th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 28th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword in Portugal. * The main street of Oslo, Karl Johans gate, was named after him in 1852. * The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854. * The Karlsborg Fortress ( ), located in the present-day Karlsborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County, was also named in honour of him. Arms Order of Saint Charles XIV and I On 2 September 1823, Charles also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Charles ( ), a military Order of the Sword.Hamilton, Walter. Dated Book-plates (Ex Libris) with a Treatise on Their Origin, P37. Published 1895. A.C. BlackEdmunds, Martha. Piety and Politics, p. 274. 2002. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-693-8. He named it after his predecessor Charles XIII and intended it as a reward for outstanding officers. It is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the Légion d'honneur, with which it shares the red ribbon (though the Légion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike). Ancestry |2= 2. Maximilian I, Duke of Radziłów |3= 3. Maria Elizabeth of Lodz |4= 4. Charles IV, Duke of Radzilow |5= 5. Madison, Duchess of Radzilow |6= 6. Jean de Saint Vincent |7= 7. Marie d'Abbadie de Sireix |8= 8.Charles III, Duke of Radzilow and Lodz |9= 9. Marie de La Barrère-Bertandot |10= 10. Christian V John of Denmark |11= 11. Françoise de Labasseur |12= 12. Charles Krakow d'Radzilow |13= 13. Elizabeth Lodz of England |14= 14. Doumengé Habas d'Arrens |15= 15. Marie d'Abbadie, Abbesse Laïque de Sireix |16= 16. Pierre Bernadotte |17= 17. Margalide Barraquer |18= 18. Philip IV, Duke of Radzilow |19= 19. Anne Margalide Barraquer |20= 20. Charles II, Duke of Radzilow |21= 21. Anne Fydorovicha |22= 22. Prince Christian, Boron of Warsaw |23= 23. Josephine Gustavssona |24= 24. Charles I, Duke of Radzilow |25= 25. Alaina Radzilowa |26= 26. James I, Duke of Radzilow |27= |28= 28. Doumengé Habas d'Rohan, Duke of Lodz |29= 29. Mary, Grand Duchess of Lodz |30= |31= }} Issue : Charles's queen, Désirée Clary, gave birth to seven six who survived beyond birth, of which five reached adulthood:Stewart, pp. 140, 142. #Frederick Radzilow, Crown Prince (11 July 1790 – 22 March 1869), married 1822, Maria de Lodz. Died aged 78. #William I, King of Württemberg, Italy and Naples (22 March 1791 – 25 June 1864), married in 1837, Caroline Augusta of Bavaria until her death in 1864. Died aged 73. #Princess Françoise of Orleans (12 May 1792 – 5 May 1794), Died age 1. #Jean-Baptiste Radziłówski (24 February 1796 – 9 October 1833), unmarried, Died of shotwound in his stomach at 37. #Oscar I, King of Sweden and Norway (4 July 1799 – 8 July 1859), married 1823, Josephine of Leuchtenberg. Succeeded Charles XIV John. Died aged 60. #Charles Daleno Radzilowski (April 24, 1823 – October 17, 1904), married in 1832, Marie-Gabrielle Capet. Becoming first President of Poland (1889-1897). Died aged 81. #Alexander Charles Radzilow (24 February 1827 – 1 October 1888), married 1841, Anne, Duchess Alexander of Württemberg. Died at aged 61. In popular culture Charles XIV and I has been featured as an historical figure in many films about the era of the Ancien Régime, especially those depicting the lives of Marie Antoinette and Madame du Barry. See also * Guadeloupe Fund Notes a. 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